Metin Ahunbay arşivleri ışığında Binbirkilise – Değle'de (Karaman) Orta Çağ yerleşimi ve mimarisi
Binbirkilise-Değle settlement in the light of Metin Ahunbay's survey data
- Tez No: 1018009
- Danışmanlar: PROF. DR. NEJAT TURGUT SANER
- Tez Türü: Doktora
- Konular: Mimarlık, Tarih, Arkeoloji, Architecture, History, Archeology
- Anahtar Kelimeler: Belirtilmemiş.
- Yıl: 2026
- Dil: Türkçe
- Üniversite: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
- Enstitü: Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü
- Ana Bilim Dalı: Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı
- Bilim Dalı: Mimarlık Tarihi Bilim Dalı
- Sayfa Sayısı: Belirtilmemiş.
Özet
Binbirkilise ya da İngilizce literatürde“The Thousand and One Churches”olarak bilinen kalıntılar, Orta Anadolu'da, antik Laranda'nın (günümüzde Karaman) yaklaşık 30 kilometre kuzeyinde yer alan sönmüş bir volkanik dağ olan Karadağ'ın yamaçları ve platoları boyunca yayılmaktadır. Tarihsel olarak Lykaonia bölgesindeki bu alan, Geç Antik Çağ ve Bizans dönemi boyunca yoğun biçimde iskan edilmiş ve etkin şekilde kullanılmış bir peyzaj sunmaktadır. Bu geniş yerleşim ağında özellikle Madenşehir ve Değle öne çıkmaktadır; dağ geneline yayılmış çok sayıdaki kilise, şapel, mezar, mağara ve kaya oyma unsurlarla birlikte, Orta Anadolu'daki en zengin Bizans mimarlığı materyal kültürünü oluşturmaktadır. Bu tez, Değle yerleşimini ve mimarisini, güncel belgeleme yöntemleri ile Ahunbay'ın yayımlanmamış mimari yüzey araştırması verilerini birlikte değerlendirerek incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, 2021 ve 2022 yıllarında gerçekleştirilen saha çalışmaları kapsamında IHA destekli fotogrametri ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri kullanılarak alan güncellenmiş; elde edilen veriler üzerinden yerleşimin mekansal örgütlenmesi, mimari karakteri ve peyzajla kurduğu ilişkiler analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın temel hedeflerinden biri, Ahunbay'ın Değle üzerine yürüttüğü ancak yayımlanmamış verileri yeniden ele alarak kullanılabilir hale getirmek ve bu verileri yeni belgelerle birlikte bütüncül bir değerlendirme çerçevesine yerleştirmektir. Son otuz yılda arkeoloji teorilerinde yaşanan dönüşüm doğrultusunda gelişen bütüncül peyzaj yaklaşımları ve disiplinler arası yöntemler, bu çalışmanın kuramsal zeminini oluşturmaktadır. Bu çerçevede Değle, yalnızca tekil yapıların incelendiği bir alan olarak değil, topografya, doğal çevre ve mekansal pratiklerle birlikte ele alınan bir yerleşim olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Önceki araştırmalarda yaygın olarak kabul edilen ve Değle'deki büyük yapı komplekslerini manastır olarak tanımlayan yaklaşım, bu çalışmada yeniden sorgulanmaktadır. Elde edilen veriler, Değle yerleşiminin yalnızca bir manastır merkezi olarak değerlendirilmesinin yetersiz olduğunu göstermektedir. Yerleşimde dini ve sivil yapıların birlikte var olabileceği, manastır ve seküler yaşam arasında kesin bir ayrımın bulunmadığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, özellikle Erken Bizans döneminden itibaren yerleşimin bir haç merkezi olarak işlev görmüş olabileceğine ve Orta Bizans döneminde askeri bir işleve sahip olduğuna işaret eden bulgular, Değle'nin zaman içinde değişen ve çok katmanlı bir yerleşim karakteri sergilediğini ortaya koymaktadır. Bu nedenle Değle, bölgedeki kutsal alanlar, hac yolları ve kırsal savunma ağı içindeki konumu dikkate alınarak yeniden yorumlanmaktadır. Bu çalışma, farklı dönemlere ait verileri bir araya getirerek Değle yerleşiminin en kapsamlı planını ortaya koymakta; aynı zamanda yerleşimin sınırları, mekansal organizasyonu ve tarihsel gelişimi üzerine yeni bir değerlendirme sunmaktadır. Bu yönüyle tez, hem Binbirkilise araştırmalarına hem de Anadolu'daki Bizans kırsal yerleşimlerinin anlaşılmasına katkı sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır.
Özet (Çeviri)
Karadağ is an extinct volcanic mountain mass situated north of the ancient city of Laranda (now Karaman) and south of the former Iconion (now Konya) in the ancient Lykaonia region. Archaeological evidence and historical texts indicate that Karadağ, adjacent to the metropolis Iconium, held significant importance during the Byzantine period. The majority of the remaining traces of habitation on the mountain's hills date back to the Byzantine era and encompass a substantial area. Among the ruins, the settlements of Madenşehir and Değle exhibit a particularly dense concentration. Together with the numerous small churches, chapels, graves, caves, and rock-cut features scattered across the mountain, these settlements constitute one of the richest concentrations of Byzantine architecture in central Anatolia. While the majority of the surviving architectural remains date to the Early and Middle Byzantine periods, while evidence of earlier occupation extending back to the Hittite period has also been identified. In the early 20th century, these ruins were collectively referred to as“Binbirkilise”to highlight the abundance of Byzantine churches. Archaeological evidence indicates that Karadağ was not a marginal or isolated area, but rather a densely inhabited and actively utilised landscape throughout Late Antiquity and the Byzantine period. Since the late 18th century, Karadağ has attracted sustained scholarly attention. Although early travellers have been drawn to the region since the late 18th century, academic research did not commence until 1895. Three major studies have been particularly influential in shaping our understanding of the region. The first is the extensive survey conducted between 1907 and 1909 by William Ramsay and Gertrude Bell. This work constitutes the first systematic documentation of the Binbirkilise settlement, providing plans and descriptions of numerous structures. Despite the limitations of the period, their study remained the principal reference for the region for many decades. The second important contribution is the survey carried out in 1967 and 1968 by the art historian Semavi Eyice and his students. Eyice's work drew scholarly attention to the Byzantine architectural remains of the area and evaluated the monuments primarily from an art historical perspective. However, it did not focus on the systematic documentation of the site, nor on the detailed recording of architectural features, plans, and construction techniques, remaining largely descriptive in scope. It is also important to note that both settlements have undergone considerable changes since the early investigations of Ramsay and Bell, leading to the loss of some of their most significant architectural remains. While this increases the value of early documentation, it also introduces limitations for present-day analysis. Eyice's work, conducted after these transformations, did not aim to systematically document the site, which further contributes to gaps in the architectural record. In this context, the reassessment of both early documentation and unpublished archival material becomes essential for a more accurate understanding of the region's architectural and settlement history. The third and most comprehensive body of research was initiated in the late 1990s by the architectural historian and archaeologist Metin Ahunbay and his students. Ahunbay's work significantly expanded the known corpus of structures and provided a much more detailed understanding of the architectural diversity and spatial organisation of the settlement. Through extensive fieldwork and architectural analysis, this research offered a far more comprehensive dataset compared to earlier studies. Nevertheless, a substantial portion of Ahunbay's original research data has remained unpublished. In 2014 and 2015, the Karaman Museum carried out excavation works under the designation of“cleaning”in three of Değle's large churches (Nos. 31, 32, and 33); as a result of these interventions, the churches were excavated down to ground level and brought to light. The primary objective of this study is to utilize the data acquired from the Değle settlement, which was one of the key areas examined in the architectural survey led by Metin Ahunbay. Accordingly, fieldwork was conducted in 2021 and 2022. Due to limited time and financial resources, drone-based documentation was employed. Aerial photographs captured by drone were processed using photogrammetric methods in Agisoft Metashape, enabling the generation of point clouds, 2D orthophotos, and 3D models of both the terrain and the architectural remains. The resulting data were further utilised within a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) framework to conduct topographic analyses and to produce visual representations of the structures. The study aims to make this data accessible and provide a comprehensive evaluation of the structures and the settlement through new documentation methods to be employed in the region. The ultimate goal is to complete the remaining aspects of the project within its original framework. Within the scope of this doctoral research, the boundaries of the initial large-scale plan produced by Ahunbay have been expanded to incorporate all structures identified by Ramsay and Bell, as well as newly documented remains. In preparing the new map, data from three different phases of research were integrated, bringing together evidence from the early twentieth century, the 1990s, and the present day to produce the most comprehensive plan of the site to date. This approach has made it possible to observe the condition of the remains and the transformations they have undergone across these three periods. When the individual structures recorded by Bell were placed onto the site plan, it became evident that, although partially accurate, her drawings contain a number of inconsistencies. In particular, at the junctions of walls, Bell appears to have assumed right-angled connections without fully accounting for the topographical context of the buildings. Since portions of the structures that no longer survive today or were not present during Ahunbay's fieldwork were reconstructed based on Bell's drawings, the resulting composite plan may not fully reflect the original state of the buildings and may contain certain inaccuracies. The primary aim of this reconstruction, however, is not to produce an exact restitution of each structure, but rather to determine the overall extent of the Değle settlement and to clarify its boundaries. By bringing together data from earlier studies (Bell and Ahunbay) with current documentation, this study offers the most complete representation of the site to date, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of its spatial organisation and overall layout. In the past, Byzantine architecture studies primarily focused on significant historical sites like Constantinople and other Roman-era locations mentioned in written sources and with existing ruins. The research primarily concentrated on religious structures due to their relatively better preservation and the prevailing scientific approaches at the time. However, since the mid-20th century, there has been a growing interest in studying a more comprehensive range of geographical areas and structures, including rural regions, the Anatolian hinterland, along with the capital. Previously, rural areas were overlooked in academic studies, which tended to be centred on cities. However, with the emergence of holistic landscape theory and methodologies in the 21st century, there has been a shift towards understanding the characteristics and layouts of rural settlements. This approach involves examining the functions, identities, and various aspects of Byzantine society, such as the economy, social life, religion, and administration, within the broader context of the Byzantine rural landscape. This interpretive strategy piques scientific curiosity beyond only examining specific structures or significant ruins. Furthermore, the potential for reconstructing Byzantine space advances our comprehension of medieval cultures based in a specific geographic region. From the early 19th century onwards, there was a unique fascination with the towns and structures of Binbirkilise. The area captivated scholars and travellers due to its picturesque view of the volcano, close relationship to the places where Christianity spread, and, most importantly, its relatively well-preserved ruins. However, previous studies on the site mainly focused on recording and categorizing the buildings based on their typology, offering limited insights. Therefore, it is crucial to approach the Değle settlement, situated on the sacred mountain and believed to hold great significance, from a different perspective that aligns with the new point of view. By doing so, it is hoped that this site will contribute to the advancement of discussions and research on Byzantine Anatolia, going beyond the conventional approaches and shedding new light on its historical and cultural significance. The Değle settlement, which forms the focus of this thesis, occupies a relatively level area surrounded on all sides by higher ground. Isolated churches, chapels, graves, and large vaulted building complexes—namely its monumental and religious structures—are concentrated on the central plain and along the slope of the eastern ridge. Despite the long history of research outlined above, fundamental questions concerning the nature of the settlement remain unresolved. From the earliest studies onwards, many of the large architectural complexes at the site have been identified as monasteries, and this interpretation has shaped scholarly understanding for more than a century. However, recent developments in Byzantine studies, together with new field data, suggest that this interpretation is insufficient. The evidence indicates that Değle may have served a broader range of functions beyond that of a purely monastic centre. The possibility that monastic and secular structures coexisted should not be overlooked, as the boundary between monastic and secular life was not always clearly defined. A key issue, therefore, is how the identity of the settlement and its role within the rural landscape can be re-evaluated in light of current approaches. Fieldwork findings suggest that the site functioned in multiple ways, including as a pilgrimage centre from the Early Byzantine period and as a military base during the Middle Byzantine period, pointing to a multi-functional character that either coexisted or evolved over time. Accordingly, this study reinterprets Değle within a broader framework that considers regional routes, connections to sacred sites and pilgrimage practices, and the strategic role of military routes and fortifications within the rural defensive network. The interpretation of Değle as a monastic centre has been one of the most persistent and controversial issues since the earliest explorations in the region. Many architectural complexes whose functions remain uncertain were identified as monasteries based on the methodological approaches of early researchers. Building groups characterised by perimeter walls, courtyards, and multiple rooms were routinely classified as monastic complexes. However, in light of ongoing Byzantine scholarship and newly available field evidence, it is increasingly clear that such classifications require reconsideration. Following the survey conducted by Bell and Ramsay, four architectural complexes were identified as monastic structures. One of these includes a group of interconnected vaulted spaces at the core of the settlement (buildings 32, 39, and 43). Another complex, comprising buildings 33 and 36, is located behind the central area and appears to be associated with building 44. A further group, formed by buildings 35 and 45, has also been interpreted as a monastic complex. Although there is no surviving written evidence to support the long-standing assumption of a widespread monastic presence, during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, architectural complexes in remote and mountainous areas were commonly interpreted as monasteries. More recent studies of both monastic and secular settlements in Anatolia, however, have demonstrated that such interpretations are far from straightforward. In Cappadocia, earlier attempts to associate similar architectural complexes with known historical figures or aristocratic families were inconclusive, yet recent research has re-evaluated courtyard complexes as structures with secular functions, challenging earlier monastic identifications. In this context, Thomas and Annie Mathews reinterpreted Lyn Rodley's Middle Byzantine courtyard complexes—previously identified as monasteries—as aristocratic residences. Similarly, Robert Ousterhout identified numerous comparable complexes at the Çanlı Kilise settlement in Western Cappadocia and argued that these too should be understood as civil residences. The site of Alahan, once considered a monastery, is now widely accepted as a pilgrimage centre. Stephen Hill has also questioned whether complexes with courtyards, enclosing walls, and multiple rooms—often located in remote and inaccessible areas—can be uniformly classified as monasteries, suggesting instead that such structures may have fulfilled a range of functions, including fortified settlements, residences, pilgrimage centres, or funerary complexes. Like Alahan and other sites in the broader region, Değle appears to have been subject to similar interpretative tendencies, influenced by its isolated volcanic setting and the relatively well-preserved state of its numerous religious structures. Karadağ is situated in an area that reflects the dynamics of the Central Anatolia region in the Middle Ages and has interactions with neighbouring regions, particularly the Cilicia region. It occupies a crucial location along the roads connecting Barata, Iconium, Kybistra (Ereğli), Tyana (Kemerhisar), as well as the route from Iconium to Laranda. It is likely that Karadağ, with its high and cool terrain and natural water sources, serves as an ideal resting place for pilgrims travelling during the summer months from Iconium to the Cilicia Gates in the dry and hot middle Lycaonia plain. Karadağ, likely being a rest and transition area in the road network, reflects the cultural characteristics of both Central Anatolia and the Mediterranean regions. Situated between important Christian cities of the East and the West, this settlement serves as a passage zone. Even today, it remains relatively isolated from its surroundings, particularly during winter conditions, and maintains a self-sufficient position in production and consumption. The unique geographical conditions of Karadağ have fostered its self-sufficiency and seclusion while still allowing for interactions with other settlements. Being both a gateway and a region capable of isolation and introversion, Karadağ has developed its distinct cultural and physical environment. This has resulted in the emergence of unique materials and characteristics that are representative of the area. Taking into account the geographical conditions and historical texts, the border passing south of Iconium, as indicated in the travels of Hagios Paulus (Saint Paul), also delineates the ethnic border between the cities of Lycaonia and Phrygia. Iconium is regarded as a Phrygian city and exhibits typical Phrygian ruins up to that point in history. Considering the geographical conditions and historical texts, the border passing south of Iconium, as indicated in the travels of Hagios Paulus, also delineates the ethnic border between the cities of Lycaonia and Phrygia. Iconium is regarded as a Phrygian city and exhibits typical Phrygian ruins up to that point in history. This study aims to reassess the Değle settlement through a contemporary perspective and explore its position within the cultural network mentioned earlier. By examining this unidentified medieval city from a modern standpoint, we can gain valuable insights into the life and society of the region during that era. Hopefully, this research will contribute to our understanding of how the Byzantine inhabitants experienced their dynamic living environment in the region. Additionally, reconstructing a comprehensive picture of the settlement, which is situated along a crucial route connecting important centres in the east and west of the Byzantine Empire, will enhance our knowledge of rural life in Byzantium.
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